Where did Sanskrit come from?

Sanskrit is an Indo-Aryan language and also the primary religious language used in Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism.

8 Amazing Facts About Sanskrit

1. Sanskrit is included in the 22 scheduled languages of India and is also the official language of Uttarkhand.
2. Sanskrit as a language holds an important place alongside other founding languages such as Greek and Latin.
3. It holds an important place in India, similar to that of Latin and Greek in Europe.
4. Sanskrit has had a significant influence on most modern languages of the Indian subcontinent, primarily in India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Nepal.
5. The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as Vedic Sanskrit, with the language of the Rigveda being the oldest and most archaic dating back to as early as 1500 BCE. Rigvedic Sanskrit is therefore documented as one of the oldest Indo-Iranian languages, and also one of the earliest members of the Indo-European language family, the family which includes English and most European languages.
6. Sanskrit even today is widely used during Hindu ceremonial rituals and Buddhist practices in the form of hymns and mantras. Spoken Sanskrit is still used in a few traditional institutions in India and several attempts are being made for its revival.
7. The oldest surviving Sanskrit grammar is in Panini’s “Eight-Chapter Grammar” which is essentially an authority defining correct Sanskrit.
8. Knowledge of Sanskrit marked the fact that a person belonged to a certain social class. Sanskrit then, was mainly taught to members of higher castes, through close analysis of the works of Sanskrit grammarians such as Panini.

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Origin of the Latin Language

Latin is an Italic language which originated in the Italian peninsula, and was originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome located along the Mediterranean Sea.

• Similar to most European languages, Latin is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the church speak it fluently, and many schools and universities continue to teach it.
• Latin is used even now in the creation of new words in modern languages, including English. Latin vocabulary is used in science, academia, and law.
• A standard, more literate form gained popularity through speeches by the educated during the later stages in the Roman Republic which is now referred to as Classical Latin. Classical Latin however slowly changed with the decline of the Roman empire, as education and wealth became ever scarcer.
• In terms of vocabulary, Latin has a tendency to preserve the original forms of many Indo-European roots. Languages such as Sanskrit, however, tend to be more conservative with regards to grammar.

Pandya Dynasty: Kingdoms of South India

One of the three ancient kingdoms in the south of India was the Pandyan Kingdom who ruled over Tamil Nadu until the end of the fifteenth century.

Korkai, a seaport on the southernmost tip of India was initially their capital, but then later the capital was moved to Madurai.

The Pandyan Empire was established by the Emperor Kadungon in the sixth century. He ascended the throne after defeating the clan of Kalabhras.

The Pandyas grew in strength and expanded their kingdom. Tamil Nadu was divided between the Pallavas and the Pandyas. The river Kaveri acted as a boundary between the two kingdoms.

The Pandyas controlled the districts which are known as Madurai and Tirunalveli today as well as parts of Southern Kerala.

The Pandyas were best known for their extensive trade network which spread as far as Rome and Greece. They excelled in trading though the seas from Dhanushkodi, the sea shore of Ramanathapuram, and Poompuhar, a city which was used to trade with China, Malaysia, Maldives and other. The Pandyas controlled the pearl fisheries along the South Indian coast between Sri Lanka and India, producing some of the finest pearls known.

The Pandyan Kingdom was a powerful kingdom, but were often subdued during clashes with the Pallavas and the Cholas. This happened because as their kingdom expanded, their neighbors, feeling threatened by them, attacked.

The Pandyas were soon overshadowed by the Cholas during the rule of Parantaka Chola II. His son, Aditya Karikala and his army went to war with Vira Pandya, defeating him in battle. Sinhalese forces (Sri Lankan) came to the Pandyas’ rescue, but even with their help, the Pandyas were defeated. The Pandyan Kings were driven out of their strongholds, and sent to Sri Lanka, where they sought refuge. This was the beginning of a long period in exile for the Pandyas.

Their kingdoms were taken over by Chola Viceroys who called themselves Chola Pandyas and they ruled from Madurai from 1020 AD.

In the thirteenth century, the Cholas had become very weak and were fast losing control of their lands. The Pandyas in the meantime emerged from hiding and expanded their territory from the Telegu lands by the Godavari to the northern half of Sri Lanka.

The two kings who revived Pandyan glory were Maravarman Sundara Pandya and his successor, Jatavarman Sundara Pandya. Jatavarman was a brave and ambitious king. His main goal was to subdue the Cholas completely. He fought many battles and managed to consolidate his hold over Trichi, Srirangam, Tanjore and Kumbakonam.

Maravarman Kulasekara Pandya I, was another Pandyan king who tried to revive Pandyan glory. But after his death, his two sons, Sundara Pandya and Vira Pandya fought against each other for the throne. A general of the Delhi Sultanate took advantage of this chaos and raided the kingdom, which brought an abrupt end to Pandyan rule.

Later on, the Pandyas were nothing more than local chieftains who owned some land around Tirunalveli.

By 476 AD the western half of the Roman Empire had collapsed. The Crisis of the Third Century was that the entire Roman system – social, military, economic –collapsed and the empire began disintegrating. This happened due to a number of different reasons:

5 Reasons why Rome fell

1. Unrest among common people: Roman society was divided into free persons and slaves. The slaves had no rights and had to work very hard for their masters. This caused unrest among them.
2. Taxes: As the empire expanded, more and more people had to be conscripted into the army. This required money for salaries so people from all the Roman territories were heavily taxed. This caused great unrest and revolt from some parts of the empire who felt disconnected from the Emperor.
3. Barbarians: The Romans called everyone outside the Roman Empire barbarians and thought they lacked culture and morals. However, they had to sometimes enlist their help in protecting their far-off territories where the tired Roman army could not or would not go. The Barbarians (Germanic tribes such as the Vandals and the Visigoths) not only took over the land they were sent to protect but also weakened the social morals of the troops.
4. Christianity: the rise of Christianity made people believe that a peaceful life of service was possible and they did not want the join the army. It also taught that all men were created equal in the eyes of God which threw off the balance of slaves and free persons.
5. Praetorian Guards: the Praetorian guards were a special class of soldiers encamped within Rome charged with protecting high-ranking officials in the city. They misused their special powers by accepting money to assassinate emperors, bullied people under them and on the people whom they were sworn to protect. Their position in society was weakened because of this.

Activity:
Asterix and Obelix is a famous comic book that is based on the rebellion of territories within the Roman Empire. Try and find one of the Asterix and Obelix comic books and learn about the Gaulish rebellion.

For more such interesting history articles and videos, go to this page.

Mythical creatures gained popularity through literary circulation and story-telling. They are creatures which are believed to be real beings, but there isn’t enough evidence out there to prove that.

List of 5 Popular Mythical Creatures

1. Dragon

The creature called Dragon has two origins, European(derived from European, Greek and Middle Eastern mythologies) and Chinese(derived from Japanese, Chinese, Korean and other East Asian folklore). Common to both origins, the dragon is a huge reptilian, fire breathing creature living in caves, mountains or lakes. While in some cultures they are considered a cause of havoc, in some other cultures they are also a sign of peace and prosperity.

2. Unicorn

The word unicorn comes from the Latin words uni meaning one and cornus meaning horn. A unicorn is said a be a beautiful and pure woodland creature which resembles a white horse with one single spiralling horn protruding from its forehead. Its horn is said to have the power to make poisoned water potable and to heal sickness.

3. Werewolf

A werewolf is a mythical human with the ability to turn into a wolf-like creature. This transformation is often associated with the appearance of a full-moon.

4. Cerberus

In Roman and Greek mythology, Cerberus is a 3 headed dog guarding the entrance to the Underworld. It would only allow people to enter the place of the dead, but never allowed them to leave. Only a few have ever managed to escape from him. Among them was Orpheus, a Greek musician who lulled it to sleep by playing a lyre.

5. Gorgons

The Gorgons were 3 frightful sisters, Medusa, Stheno and Euryale, who had hair of living, venomous snakes. In addition, Medusa is said to have a deadly stare which could turn a person to stone. Stheno had sharp fangs and Euryale was known for her bellowing cries.

For more such mythical creatures also read: Mythical Creatures – Part 1.

One of the earliest urban civilizations in India and in fact, in the world, was the Indus Valley Civilization, also called the Harappan Culture.

Urban Planning and Architecture

About 5000 years ago, a group of nomads traveling from Sumeria (present-day Iran) entered North Western India, near present day Karachi. These nomads found a land so richly fertile by the banks of the river Indus that they settled there without hesitation. This area was abundant with water, fodder and fuel.

Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa

Over the next thousand years, the immigrants spread over an area of half a million square miles. Excavations prove that the level of urban planning and architecture prevalent here was incomparable. The anchor for this civilization lay in the beautiful twin cities of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa.

The name Mohenjo-Daro means ‘Mound of the Dead’ in Sindhi. The city was built around 2600 BC and abandoned around 1700 BC. Evidence suggests that the city was highly prone to floods.

These cities were made of bricks – either baked mud of wood bricks. The baked bricks were a superior version of the sun-dried bricks used in other civilizations. The amazing part was that the workers made every brick of the same size. The type of brick used, ensured the durability of the buildings.

Sanitation and Sewerage System

Despite a population of about 30,000, the city had one of the best sanitation systems. Each house had a well from which it drew water. From a bathing room the waste water was directed into covered drains along the main streets. Since all the streets were well-drained, the city remained dry and clean. This is evidence of a very modern method of sanitation and sewerage.

Mohenjo-daro was primarily an agricultural city. It was situated below the great mountain ranges, with rivers flowing abundantly through the land, depositing rich fertile soil. This made evident, the fact that agriculture was the main occupation. Further proof of this is the presence of a large well, a central marketplace and several granaries in the city.

Near the granary was the great public bath house, known as the Great Bath. Steps led down to a pool lined with bricks in a huge courtyard. The beautiful bath area had a layer of natural tar – this was to prevent it from leaking. In the center of the bath area was the swimming pool. The purpose of the Great Bath was assumed to be for ritualistic bathing. This is a practice followed by Hindus even today.

Houses were well protected from noise, odour and thieves. Each house opened out onto inner courtyards and smaller lanes, so it was safe. Although some houses were larger than the others, the city seemed to promote an equal society, for all houses had the same kind of access to water and drainage.

The city had an impressive defense structure in place as well. Though it lacked outer walls, there were defensive towers in the West and South. Since other Indus cities had stronger defense systems in place, it is speculated that perhaps Mohenjo-daro was only an administrative center.

Hyder Ali: King of Mysore

The Wodeyar Dynasty, one of the most prominent dynasties of the south, ruled the Kingdom of Mysore. Hyder Ali and his son, Tipu Sultan make their mark in this region.

Hyder Ali Career

Hyder Ali was born at Budikote around the year 1720. He started off his career as a soldier. He was a petty office in the army and was assistant to the Nizam, who was the Mughal deputy in South India. When the Nizam was assassinated, a lot of confusion followed and in the midst of all the chaos, Hyder Ali’s services attracted the attention of Nanjaraja, the minister of the Raja of Mysore. Hyder Ali received an independent command and over the next 12 years, the minister and the King depended on him and were under his control.

Mysore was left bankrupt under Nanjarana, and it is during this time that Hyder Ali rose in the ranks until he replaced the King.

He extended his empire right up to the lands in the north, beyond the Tungabhadra river. He spent much of him time in building up a strong army to deal with the Marathas in the northwest and the British on the East and West coast.

The Marathas waged four damaging wars against Hyder Ali, but after the death of their leader Peshwa Madhavrao I in 1772, Ali pressed his advantage and extended his territory up to the Krishna river.

Hyder Ali sought the friendship of the British so that they could together defeat the Marathas. The British however had other ideas and wanted to undermine his powers and use him. This led to the First Anglo-Mysore War in 1767. Hyder Ali campaign against the British proved successful, and he got the British to sign a mutual defence treaty with him. The British went back on their word when they were attacked by the Marathas.

In 1780, Hyder Ali waged his second battle against the British. He was defending his kingdom as best as he could, but then suddenly died of cancer.

History of Tipu Sultan

He was succeeded by his son Tipu Sultan whom he had educated and trained well. He was fluent in a number of languages and was a good student of mathematics and science. He had a great appetite for learning. He was also an avid reader and his library was filled with over 2000 books in different languages.

Tipu was given exposure to both military and political affairs at a very young age. By the time he was 15, he father took him along on all his military campaigns. In fact, it was Tipu who headed the First Anglo-Mysore Water, defeating Colonel Braithwaite on the banks of the Coleroon.

In 1772, Tipu was sent to the the North of Mysore to recover territories seized by the Marathas. He gained valuable experience in both warfare and diplomacy there.

During the Second Anglo-Mysore War in 1780, Tipu intercepted the British troops under Colonel Baillie as they moved South. He stopped them before they could join Sir Hector Munro in Kanchipuram.

Colonel Baillie was no match for Tipu and his army. Even when Munro sent reinforcements, they were no match for Tipu’s troops. The British suffered a humiliating defeat. Munro managed to flee while Colonel Baillie was arrested and put in prison.

The Early Life of Christopher Columbus:

Christopher Columbus was born on 31 October 1451 in Genoa, northwestern Italy. He was an explorer, colonizer and navigator. His father Domenico Colombo was a wool weaver who worked both in Genoa and Savona.

His mother was Susanna Fontanarossa who belonged to a very noble family in Lisbon, Portugal. Domenico taught Christopher the skills necessary to follow him into the import and exporting of woven textiles as well as the wine trade.

With his father’s help, Columbus though not scholarly, read books which would serve him well later in life on astronomy, geography and navigation. As a young man, Columbus sailed the Mediterranean, looking after the family business.

In 1476, after six years of being in the trade, Columbus was in the quest to lead a more adventurous life. He travelled to Lisbon and started working for Genoese companies trading with northern Europe. Two years later, he fell in love and married Felipa who gave him his first son, Diego. It is said that Felipa died tragically after giving birth to Diego. Columbus grieved over the passing of his wife, and gave her the best possible funeral he could afford.

In 1484, Columbus approached the Portuguese king, Joao II to help fund an exploration. King Joao’s experts however disagreed with Columbus and denied him his request. The following year, Columbus left Portugal and decided to ask for support from the Spanish King and Queen, Ferdinand and Isabella.

Columbus convinced Queen Isabella that he would find gold that could pay for a crusade to free Jerusalem from the Sacrens (name given to Arabs or Muslims then). Through the funding from the Catholic Monarchs of Spain, he completed four successful voyages across the Atlantic Ocean.

Christopher Columbus Discovers America

During his first voyage in 1492, instead of reaching Japan as intended, Columbus landed in the Bahamas, at a locale he named San Salvador. Columbus through his voyages visited the Greater and Lesser Antilles, as well as the Caribbean coast of Venezuela and Central America, claiming them for the Spanish Empire.

Columbus was not the first explorer to reach the Americas but his voyages certainly led to the first lasting European contact with America. This initiated a period of European exploration and colonization of foreign lands that lasted for several centuries. The Spaniards therefore had a great impact in the historical development of the modern Western world.

Columbus saw his accomplishments primarily in the light of spreading the Christian religion, though it is also said that he had a hunger for amassing wealth.

Columbus’ strained ties with the Spanish crown led to his arrest and dismissal. Columbus died on 20 May, 1506 fighting with the Spaniards over the benefits which Columbus and his heirs claimed were owed to them by the crown.

History of Rajputs in India

In the 7th and 8th century a group of people emerged who called themselves Rajputs which meant ‘Sons of Kings.’ They were warriors who hailed from Rajasthan and parts of Central India. They belonged to three kinds of ancestries; Suryavanshi, Chandravanshi and Agnivanshi. Under Agnivanshi were the clans of Pratiharas, Solankis, Paramaras and Chauhans. These clans established Kingdoms in Marwar, Ujjain, Malwa, Kannauj, Ajmer and Gujarat.

Rajputs were known for their courage and loyalty. Rajput women were trained for war and did not hesitate to go into the battlefield if their men were outnumbered. However, if the King and all his men were killed in a battle, Rajput women preferred to commit suicide rather than allow themselves to be taken as prisoners. This ritual was known as ‘Jauhar.’

Prithviraj Chauhan: King of India

One of the most prominent Rajput Kings was Prithviraj Chauhan. He ascended the throne at the age of 13, after the death of his father. He was adept at military targets and was known to hit moving targets merely by listening to the sound. He was a romantic, chivalrous and an extremely fearless person. His kidnapping of Princess Sanyogita is legendary. During her wedding to another man, Prithviraj bravely rode into the venue, abducted her and sped away.

Her father’s soldiers chased him but were unable to catch him. He got away and married his beloved.

In the meantime, he spread his empire and controlled most of Rajasthan and Haryana, unifying Rajputs against Muslim invasion. A Muslim conqueror named Mohammad Shahab-ud-din Ghori was capturing nearby kingdoms. As he covered more areas, he became a threat to Prithviraj’s territory.

Prithviraj prepared for war. The two clashed at the First Battle of Tarain. Prithviraj defeated him with his massive army of loyal soldiers. As Ghori retreated, Prithviraj was advised to attack the retreating army. The noble king refused to do so, and this proved to be his undoing as Ghori soon came back with his armies for a second attack.

At the second battle of Tarain, Prithviraj was defeated and captured. It is said that he was tortured and his eyes were blinded with red-hot iron rods. Thereafter in an archery contest, he displayed his skills by hitting targets in spite of being blinded. Ghori is said to have praised him for this feat. On hearing his voice, Prithviraj is believed to have aimed an arrow in his direction that killed his enemy. In 1192 AD, Prithviraj Chauhan died, ending an era of profound bravery, courage and mortality.

Maharana Pratap, Bappa Rawal and Rani Padmini have all made an indelible mark on the pages of Indian history. Maharana Pratap, the ruler of Mewar, is synonymous with Rajput valour and chivalry. He continued his combat against the Mughals and other infiltrators for the rest of his life. Gradually the power of the Rajputs dwindled as they were no match for the Mughals. When the British arrived in India, the Rajput states became colonies, this ending the reign of the Rajputs forever.

For more such interesting history articles and videos, go to this page.

INTRODUCTION
Indian literature dates back to the courts of monarchs over 5000 years ago. Back then literature was not in the form of written texts as we know it today, but in the form of oral poetry, song, and verse. Classical Indian languages were warehouses of ancient wisdom that were stocked by folklore imagination. The literature of ancient India was based in inquiry into questions about life, death and nature. Even mathematics, astronomy, cosmology and science were keenly inspected. The act of passing down knowledge took place in the gurukuls (schools) of the monarchs of Indian antiquity and is known as the oral tradition.

THE ORAL TRADITION

The body of shared knowledge was passed down from generation to generation in an oral tradition that remained unbroken for centuries, nay- millennia. In fact until quite recently literature reached its audience through performance and experience, which is how even people who do not know how to read and write are very informed about their own culture.

In the oral tradition before written language, long texts of histories and ideas were memorised and passed down from mouth to ear. Each text would use a mnemonic system (an auditory learning aid) to help the memoriser remember such a large volume of knowledge. Every generation made their additions to the body of work but no modifications were made to original texts simply because it would mean changing the tune of the song.

THE WRITTEN TRADITION

Writing played a very important role in the knowledge based societies of ancient times. Documenting became a necessity as civilised life became more complex. Writing was a convenient way of transmitting information and a reliable means of keeping historical records. The representation of language in a textual medium dates at around 4000 BC.

The long texts that were transmitted orally gradually began to be recorded on copper plates, birch, palm leaves, and even paper. The oral tradition continued to be a means of learning the Vedas but has been passed down to us through a large collection of manuscripts.

Sanskrit has no native script because it was spoken in a purely oral society. When it was written the scripts used by regional scribes were used and therefore virtually all major writing systems have been used to create Sanskrit manuscripts. Also, many original Sanskrit texts were translated into many different Indian languages as this tradition of documenting the existing oral tradition was considered essential to propagating knowledge and language.

One of the oldest bodies of text in the world are the Vedas that were created between 1500 – 500 BC. During that time the language of the street was called Vedic. The Vedas are written in Classical Sanskrit, a complex form of Vedic. Around the 4th century a grammarian known as Panini wrote a book called Panniyam, which contained 3,959 linguistic rules. This transformed Classical Sanskrit into what is called Modern Sanskrit.

THE MANUSCRIPTS OF INDIA

India is said to have the largest collection of manuscripts in the world scattered all across the country. Indian manuscripts were written in a variety of languages and scripts that have survived till today. These are in the Grantha, Devanagiri, Nandinagiri, and Telegu scripts and multiple languages. The heritage and history of India is well documented in these treasures.

There is a big difference in the way we store information in the digital age and how the people of ancient India did it. A palm leaf was the most common form of paper. The center rib of a palm frond was removed leaving two strips. The strips were pressed flat and trimmed to one size before being smoothed down by sandpaper.

Scribes would use a sharp instrument to actually carve the writing into the surface of the leaf. The nearly invisible text was made visible by covering the leaf with a black pigment like carbon black. After the leaf was cleaned, the residue remained in these scratches and made the writing visible.

The scribes would delicately write on both sides of the strip of palm leaf. These pages were then bound together by a string either at one end of the strip so it could fan out, or read like a book as we do now. The front and back cover of the manuscript would always be a hard material in order for protection. These covers were most often adorned and sometimes even made of precious materials such as ivory.

ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS

Recording and documenting history and culture was not restricted to the Indian subcontinent. The ancient Egyptians were using a similar technique on papyrus and the Mesopotamians as well. During the rise of Christianity around 400 AD, manuscripts began to feature small images and colourful decoration that would illustrate the text. A text with miniature paintings along with illustrations that framed the text in a box is known as an illuminated manuscript.

This tradition came to India by 800 AD. Jain, Hindu, and Buddhist traditions of illuminated manuscripts exist in various parts of India. However it became the dominant style of creating manuscripts during the Mughal period. Akbar the great was by far the biggest patron of illuminated manuscripts in India. He had studied painting himself in his youth and had inherited his father’s library. After he moved his capital to Fatehpur Sikri he set up a school dedicated to miniature painting under the tutelage of Persian master artists.

This style soon spread to the surrounding Hindu courts and the Hindu epics of the Ramayana, Mahabharata, smaller fables and fairy tales began to find themselves in this format in all languages and scripts.

The people of the Indian subcontinent have historically been a culture of knowledge. Thousands of texts and illuminated manuscripts have survived to this day. It is proof that whether in the midst of war or prosperity, kings and scholars worked to preserve the culture and histories of their people. So the next time you write a note, imagine who might find it years from now.

PROJECT

• There are scores of scripts that originated in the Indian subcontinent. Can you find out which ones are still used today? Hint: You might find more than one language that uses the same script.
• Learn how to write your name in 3 different scripts you don’t already know.
• Write a report about what you read in the style of an illuminated manuscript. Have a small picture in one corner and place your text around it.

With the arrival of the Portuguese explorer, Vasco da Gama in 1498 at Calicut in South India, European explorers started arriving on Indian shores. Their prime purpose was the profitable spice trade.

At the end of 1600, Queen Elizabeth of England allowed a large body of merchants to form a new trading company to trade with the East Indies, India and Southeast Asia, which later came to be known as the East India Company. In 1617, Sir Thomas Roe approached the Mughal Emperor, Jahangir and sought his permission to build a factory in Surat. In two years, this permission was granted.

Within ten years, another factory opened in Bombay, which became the headquarters of the company. Soon the Indian region was divided into three Presidencies; Calcutta, Bombay and Madras. Each presidency functioned by itself, but was answerable to the Court of Directors in London.

The company cleverly followed a triangular trade. They exchanged English gold and silver coins for Indian goods. They then utilized these in China to subsidize the prices of commodities they bought there. With this system the Company earned huge profits and became richer.

The Company however was corrupt and drained their profits. This increased the need to collect higher revenues. Peasant landowners were forced to pay their taxes in cash. They in turn approached moneylenders, who seized their lands on their failure to repay the loans. There was widespread discontent and anger.

In 1757, a military force led by Robert Clive defeated the army of the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-daulah. With this victory, The Company was transformed from an association of traders into rulers of a large, unknown land. From this moment the British Raj was born.

By 1765, the Company had taken over Bengal. They also exercised the right to collect revenues on behalf of the Mughal Emperor in Bihar and Orissa. Warren Hastings, the Governor General of Bengal, consolidated the military victories and established the fact that they were not answerable to the Mughals.

The British justified their rule by claims that there was a need for Indians to be ‘civilized.’ They sought to replace Indian systems with a more reliable method of justice, law and fair play. There were some religious practices that the British banned, like ‘Sati.’

Over the next few decades, under the governor-generals, Dalhousie and Cannin, the British took over even more territories. Their excuse was that the rulers of these territories were corrupt or incapable or that they had no descendents. Smaller Kingdoms like Sambalpur, Baghat, Jhansi, Nagpur and Awadh fell into this trap.

The British could not take over Punjab, as the Sikhs were a dominant force under King Ranjit Singh. Punjab was safe from British invasion after his death. After that the British forces started moving in, bringing an end to the Sikh Empire. In 1839, the British seized Sindh, Karachi, Sukkur and Bukkur (all in present-day Pakistan).

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Indian Freedom Fighter

Rani Laxmi Bai, the Rani of Jhansi (November 1835 – 17 June 1858) was the queen of the Maratha-ruled princely state of Jhansi, situated in the northern part of India. She was one of the leading figures of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and a symbol of resistance to the rule of the British East India Company in the subcontinent.

Her father worked at the Peshwa court of Bithoor and because of his influence at court Laxmi bai had more independence than most women, who were normally restricted to the zenana. She studied self-defence, horsemanship, archery, and even formed her own army out of her female friends at court.

Rani Laxmi Bai was married to Raja Gangadhar Rao Newalkar at the early age of 7 to the Maharaja of Jhansi in 1842, and thus became the queen of Jhansi. After their marriage, she was given the name Laxmi Bai. The Raja was very affectionate towards her.

Jhansi Ki Rani

She gave birth to a son, Damodar Rao, in 1851. However, the child died when he was about four months old. After his death, the Raja and Rani of Jhansi adopted Anand Rao. Anand Rao was the son of Gangadhar Rao’s cousin, and was later renamed Damodar Rao. It is said that the Gangadhar never recovered from his son’s death, and died on 21 November 1853. When the Maharaja died, Rani Laxmi Bai was just eighteen years old, but never lost her courage and took up the responsibility of protecting the interests of Jhansi.

Lord Dalhousie, the Governor-General of India at that time, tried to take advantage of the misfortune of Jhansi to expand the British Empire. The British did not accept Damodar Rao, as the legal heir of Rani Laxmi Bai and her late husband. In March 1854 Rani of Jhansi was granted an annual pension of 60,000 and was ordered to leave the Jhansi fort. She was firm on the decision not to give up the dominion of Jhansi to the British.

For strengthening the defense of Jhansi Rani Laxmi bai assembled an army of rebellions, which also included women. For this great cause she was supported by brave warriors like Gulam Gaus Khan, Dost Khan, Khuda Baksh, Sunder-Mundar, Kashi Bai, Lala Bhau Bakshi, Moti Bai, Deewan Raghunath Singh and Deewan Jawahar Singh. She assembled 14,000 rebels and organized an army for the defence of the city.

Rani Laxmi Bai and Indian Rebellion of 1857

On May 10, 1857 the Indian Rebellion started in Meerut. This began after the rumour that the new bullet casings for the Enfield rifles were coated with pork and beef fat and unrest began to spread throughout India. During this chaotic time, the British were forced to focus their attentions elsewhere, and Rani Laxmi Bai was essentially left to rule Jhansi alone, leading her troops swiftly and efficiently to quell skirmishes initiated by local princes.

Rani Laxmi Bai had always been hesitant about rebelling against the British. Her hesitation eventually came to an end when British troops arrived under Sir Hugh Rose and laid siege to Jhansi on 23 March 1858. An army of 20,000, headed by Tatya Tope, was sent to relieve Jhansi but failed to do so when his forces engaged with the British on 31 March. Three days later the besiegers were able to breach the walls and capture the city. The Rani escaped by night with her son, surrounded by her guards, many of them women.

Death

Along with the young Damodar Rao, Rani Laxmi Bai decamped to Kalpi along with her troops, where she joined other rebel forces, including those of Tatya Tope. The two moved on to Gwalior, where the combined rebel forces defeated the army of the Maharaja of Gwalior and later occupied a strategic fort at Gwalior. However, on 17 June 1858, while battling in full warrior regalia against the 8th (King’s Royal Irish) Hussars in Kotah-ki Serai near the Phool Bagh area of Gwalior, she was killed at battle. The British captured Gwalior three days later. In the British report of the battle, General Sir Hugh Rose commented that the Rani, “remarkable for her beauty, cleverness and perseverance”, had been “the most dangerous of all the rebel leaders.”

Her father, Moropant Tambey, was captured and hanged a few days after the fall of Jhansi. Her adopted son, Damodar Rao, fled with his mother’s aides. Rao was later given a pension by the British Raj and cared for, although he never received his inheritance. Damodar Rao settled down in the city of Indore, and spent most of his life trying to convince the British to restore some of his rights. He and his descendants took on the last name Jhansiwale. He died on 28 May 1906, at the age of 58 years.

STORY OF SHIVAJI BHOSLE

Shivaji Raje Bhosle was born on 19 February 1630, at the hill fort of Shivneri, near Junnar in the Pune district. He belonged to the Bhosle clan who founded the Maratha empire.

Swaraj Empire

Shivaji’s father Shahaji served alongside Malik Ambar, who defended the Deccan region, the first to be done by any Maratha against the Mughals. He always tried to free their kingdom from The Sultanate Of Bijapur as well as wanted to throw out the Mughal rule in India and establish a Swaraj Empire.

Rajmata Jijabai

His mother Jijabai was a pious and far sighted lady. She is regarded to be the master of Shivaji’s bravery. Shivaji was extremely devoted to his mother who was also very deeply religious. This religious environment had a great influence on Shivaji, and he carefully studied the two great Hindu epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata. The morality and spiritual messages of these epics left a great impression on him.

Torna Fort

By the age of 16, Shivaji managed to gather a band of fiercely loyal Maratha men and set about conquering nearby lands. Their first triumph was the capture of Torna Fort of the Bijapur Kingdom. By 1647 he had captured Kondana and Rajgad forts and had control of much of the southern Pune region.

Battle of Pratapgarh

In a bid to contain Shivaji, Adil Shah sent Afzal Khan, an experienced veteran general along with an army of 40,000 men to destroy Shivaji. Upon weighing his options carefully as to what action must be taken, Shivaji decided to meet Afzal Khan on his home turf at the base of the Pratapgarh fort insisting that the meeting be an informal one. He sent a letter to Afzal Khan stating that he was eager for it. Afzal agreed.

At the meeting, Afzal Khan stabbed Shivaji in the back when the two embraced each other. Shivaji was well prepared for this and survived the attack, protected by a chain mail armour he was wearing and counter-attacked by slaying Afzal Khan with the wagh nakh (tiger-claws glove). Afzal’s army who were prepared to attack had no idea that their leader had been slain when Shivaji walked out with the decapacitated head of Afzal Khan on his sword. On seeing this the the army surrendered.

Shivaji and Aurangzeb

The Mughal emperor Aurangzeb now identified Shivaji as a major threat to his mighty Mughal Empire. He sent his uncle Shaista Khan with a large army to defeat Shivaji. Shivaji lost a large number of forts and areas to Aurangazeb and was driven out of Pune. But he did not stay defeated for long and soon overthrew Khan and re-established his rule. In a few years he recovered most of his forts.

Shivaji fought a number of battles thereafter, a vast number of them against Aurangazeb. He was even captured on one occasion but managed to plot an ingenious escape plan a few day prior to his execution. He fought a life long battle against foreigners on Indian land and never bowed down to any of them. He built a number of forts in his time and even acquired a large number along the way.

Raigad Fort

Shivaji’s center of power and growth became the fort of Raigad in the Raigad district of Maharashtra. This place became Shivaji’s capital city. Perched on top of a hill that was split off from the Western Ghats, the fort was virtually inaccessible from three sides. It is said that prizes were given to those who tried innovative methods to reach the top.

Under his rule ‘untouchables’ were given true justice. They were also recruited in the army as well as promoted. Shivaji also laid great importance on Sanskrit. He ensured that Sanskrit was never lost. He replaced Persian words with Sanskrit ones where possible. He brought true justice to those who were wronged. The people of his land loved him and truly worshipped him.

Religion too was given importance. He allowed his people to follow their religion of choice. He also allowed people to convert back to being a Hindu after having converted to Islam under Aurangazeb. He ensured that respect was given to mosques- Muslim places of worship and also to Muslim women. As a result, a large number of Muslims served in his army.

Because of these qualities, Shivaji was able to instill the same passion for revolution against the Mughals in the minds of his people. He inspired his people so much that the Maratha Empire continued to fight the Mughal rule for 27 years after his death. Shivaji breathed his last in 1680, but is fondly remembered for his acts of bravery and kindness towards his people even today. His birthday is celebrated with grand fervour in Maharashtra, amongst Maharashtrians even today.

The Story of Tipu Sultan –

Tipu Sultan was born at Devanahalli, 33 km north of Bangalore. He is said to have been born on 20 November 1750. His father, Hyder Ali, was a military officer in service to the Kingdom of Mysore who quickly rose in the ranks and became the de facto ruler of Mysore in 1761. His mother Fatima or Fakhr-un-nissa was the daughter of the governor of the fort of Kadapa.

Tipu Sultan was introduced to military training by French officers in the employment of his father. By the time he was 15, Tipu accompanied his father against the British in the First Mysore War in 1766. In a year’s time he was made commander to a cavalry he led during the British invasion of South India. By the end of the war Tipu Sultan had already made a name for himself.

In 1779, the British captured the French-controlled port of Mahe, which Tipu had placed under his protection, providing some troops for its defence, which resulted in the start of the second Anglo-Mysore War. In response, Tipu’s father dispatched 10,000 men and 18 guns. In this battle, Tipu decisively defeated Baillie as well as Colonel Braithwaite. He brought down armies of nearly 7000 men.

By the time his father died, Tipu Sultan had gained sufficient military experience and on 22 December, he became the ruler of Mysore. He then started working on checking on advances of the British by making a alliance with the French, Afghanistan as well as the Sultan of Turkey.

In 1789, Tipu triggered off the Third Anglo-Mysore war by attacking the British Colony of Travancore. The war lasted three years and brought an end to Tipu as he had to give up half of his kingdom, and had to pay a fine of 33 million rupees and also had to deal with the kidnapping of his two sons.

Tipu Sultan paid the fine and got back his sons. He then slowly started building his army, preparing for war. Apart from that Tipu also wrote the books ‘Futuh-ul-Majahdin and ‘Farmeh Ba Nam Ali Raja.’ He built roads and dams and even introduced new industries and promoted trade and commerce.

In 1799, Tipu was about to fight his most decisive battle. General Richard Wellesley was on a mission to bring down Tipu, and in two months his armies marched towards Srirangapatnam, and thus began the fourth Anglo-Mysore War.

Tipu was caught unprepared for battle but fought fiercely like a ‘Tiger’ a nickname he had received for the battles he had fought with the British. The British however were too powerful and were able to surround the palace.

When all hope was lost, Tipu raced back to the palace to kill all the women, for he knew that they would rather die than be at he mercy of the British. Unfortunately, he was shot at the entrance and died.

Tipu Sultan was buried at a mausoleum that he had built himself. He was considered as one of the most powerful Princes of India and was said to be the biggest threat to the British position in Southern India.

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Persian And Greek Invaders –

In the year 520 BC, two kings from Persia, Darius and Cyrus invaded Northwest India and conquered the Indus Valley. The Persians ruled that part of India for about a century and a half.

Aryan Kingdoms in the meantime continued to flourish in the East.

The Greek army, headed by Alexander the Great, invaded parts of Northwestern India. As Alexander’s army conquered lands along their way, he got engaged in an epic battle with the local ruler of Punjab, Raja Puru or King Porus. Alexander emerged victorious and was so impressed with Puru’s bravery that he made an alliance with him and appointed him General of the land.

Although Alexander’s army won, they refused to go any further than present-day Jalandhar. Rumour had it that a mighty Indian army was waiting on the other side to fight them. The Indus river, marks the end of his conquered lands. Alexander left India soon after naming some of his generals as governors or satraps of the conquered provinces. But in a few years, Indian forces chased away most of the generals.

Persian and Greek invasions had a great impact on the political systems of India. The region of Gandhara (today’s Afghanistan and Northwestern Pakistan) became a mix of cultures- Indian, Persian, Central Asian and Greek. This gave rise to a new culture called Greco-Buddhism which lasted till the 5th century.

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History of Harappan Civilization

The city of Harappa was divided into two parts- The Citadel, which was home to the great public bath, as well as large residential buildings that housed around 5000 people. It also had two large assembly halls, but there is no evidence of the presence of any kings, priests, armies, palaces or temples. So the purpose of the Citadel is still unclear. The Lower City was laid out in a grid like pattern. Most of people lived here and seemed to have been traders or artisans.

They resided with others who were in the same profession as theirs. Potters’ kilns, dyers’ vats, metal working, bead making, shell making suggest that the people of Harappa had a wide range of occupations. Materials were procured from far-away places to make a wide range of things such as seals, beads and other artifacts.

Seals which were discovered during excavations had pictures of Gods, animals and other inscriptions. Some of these seals were used to stamp clay on trade goods. Goods made in the Indus valley traveled as far as Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq), Afghanistan and other parts of India. Jewelery that was discovered in the area suggests that the people of the Indus Valley had access to gold, copper and semi-precious stones.

The city had good flood control measures and irrigation systems in place.

In spite of this, evidence suggests that Mohenjo-daro was destroyed and rebuilt seven times. This was because of the damage caused by severe floods and the river changing its course. The entire city was wiped out. The repeated rebuilding process proves that their architects were dedicated workers and always dealt with nature’s forces. Extensive agricultural production and trade with Sumer (one of the oldest civilizations) in Southern Mesopotamia supported life at Harappa.

Weapons and tools were made from copper and bronze but not iron. Wheat, rice and a variety of vegetables and fruits were cultivated. A number of animals were domesticated and cotton was woven and dyed for clothing.

The people of Harappa seemed to have lived peaceful lives, with little fear of invasion. According to one theory, When the Aryans arrived from the Northwest, they hardly encountered any resistance from the Harappans. The Harappan people were overpowered by their superior military skills. All the cities fell one by one, weakened already by constant floods and rebuilding. Harappans, who were termed ‘Dasyus’ by the Aryans, either joined the lower sections of the Aryan community or fled south. This theory is no longer popular.

Drought and a slowdown in trade with Mesopotamia and Egypt are now thought to be more likely causes of the decline of the Indus Valley civilization.

The fall of Mohenjo-daro is a typical example of the decay of this great culture. It took another thousand years before a city as well-planned was built again.

Excavations reveal that the people of Harappa were technologically advanced and had an efficient system of governance in place.

Some artifacts that were excavated from the area include soapstone seals like the humped Brahmani bull and Pashupati. Other carved figures that were discovered include the bronze dancing girl and the statue of a priest and a man’s torso.

Stone implements and cave paintings from this period have been found in many parts of Asia. There is also evidence suggesting the domestication of animals, village settlements and wheel-turned pottery dating from the middle of the 6th century BC, which were discovered on the foothills of Singh and Baluchistan, both in Pakistan.

Archelogists, R.D. Bannerjee and Sir John Marshall rediscovered this historic site in the 1920s, giving the world a peek into ancient cultures and civilizations.

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Who declared Indian Independence?

Clement Attlee, the then Prime Minister of the British finally declared that India would be granted Independence. When news of this broke out, major political parties and communities, especially the Sikhs, the Congress and the Muslim League started negotiating.

The Partition of India

In 1947, The Muslim League launched Direct Action Day. Its purpose was to convey that an undivided India would no longer be possible.

On June 3rd, 1947, Lord Mountbatten, the last British Governor General in India announced the partitioning of India into a secular India and a Muslim Pakistan.

On August 14th, 1947, Pakistan was declared as a separate nation with Muhammed Ali Jinnah as its leader.

On August 15th, 1947, at the stroke of midnight, India was declared an independent nation.

While there were widespread celebrations across the country, this joyous period was also scarred with violent clashes between Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs. At least 500,000 thousand people were said to have been killed during this period and many women were abducted. Around 11 million Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs crossed borders.

In the midst of all this confusion and bloodshed, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru requested Lord Mountbatten to continue as the Governor General until the next year, when he would be replaced by Rajagopalachari.

Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi

The year following independence, Gandhi was assassinated. The entire nation mourned his death. Two years following Gandhi’s death,’Bitstream Charter’, the constitution of India was drafted, and on 26th January, 1950, India was proclaimed a Republic. Dr. Rajendra Prasad became the first President of India, taking over the reigns from Rajagopalchari.

After decades of conflict, India finally tasted freedom. Even though India was free from the British, it retained some of its influence, especially in the educational system, the use of English Language, the printing press, cricket, etc.
Ever since India came into being, it has been a mix of diverse cultures and societies. India’s history has always been rich and interesting. It produced some of the greatest leaders the world has ever seen. In the last half century, India has grown at a staggering rate, that has brought it prominence on the world stage.

Many people predicted that India would break into smaller countries because of its cultural diversity. However, with all its problems, India has remained a sovereign country, one that is democratic and unique because of its cultural diversity. The constitution of India was drafted by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, which was adopted when India became a Republic on January 26, 1950.

The state of Goa still remained under Portuguese rule, even after Independence. However, on December 19, 1961, it was annexed to India when the Indian Army, backed by the Air Force, ended the Portuguese rule. India fought its first war against China in 1962, which resulted in India’s defeat, as they were not prepared for such wars. However, in 1965, India emerged victorious in the war against Pakistan. India then went on to win the second Indo-Pak War in 1971. The result of this war was the creation of Bangladesh out of East Pakistan.

On May 18, 1974, India conducted its first nuclear test at Pokharan, Rajasthan, initiated by the then Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi. Since then many more scientific milestones have been achieved, like for example the Chandrayaan-1 space mission. India has also become a major hub in the field of Information Technology (IT) with a large number of foreign corporations setting up base in India.

India has also produced world-class scientists, doctors, engineers, journalists and sports-persons who have all excelled in their individual fields. Today, India, against all odds with over a billion people, stands as the largest democracy in the world.

India is fast catching up with the modern western world with tall buildings and huge malls. India is at third place, just after China and USA, where mobile phone users are confirmed. Bollywood, India’s film industry, produces almost about a 1000 films in a year, and has already surpassed Hollywood. India is poised to become one of the most fascinating and most visited countries of the world.

Vedic Age in India

The Aryan invaders were primarily nomads. They were not accustomed to the urban way of life and therefore did not occupy the beautiful cities they had conquered. Instead, they cleared forests near riverbanks and settled in small villages, or Gramas, becoming semi-agriculturists. Perhaps, their fear of permanent dwellings prevented them from moving into the cities. Each Grama was headed by a Gramini.

The Aryan villages were simple structures, which formed the basis for architecture in India. In fact, the caves of Ajanta and Ellora were influenced by early Aryan villages. Their huts were very basic, circular and with thatched roofs over bamboo logs. Fences of wood and bamboo surrounded the settlement for protection against wild animals.

Soon the demand for fertile land grew and rivalry spread. Groups of villages joined forces and thus small ‘cities’ or clans called ‘Vis’ were born. A group or clan formed a Jana and their leader was the Rajan or King. A priest or Purohit, the commandant or Senani, and the administration, Sabha and Samiti, assisted him.

The city buildings were made almost entirely from wood, and walls protected each city. The Vedic carpenters became skilled at constructing timber structures and their techniques were used in stone constructions of the future.

During this period, animal husbandry, agriculture, weaving, carpentry were the primary occupations. The barter system flourished. External trade began with West Asia and Egypt. Coins were introduced for trade and were called the ‘Nishka.’

The Aryans made the single largest contribution to Indian religion through Sanskrit. It was during this age that the Vedas were most composed. And this formed the foundation for the early Hindu religion.
The Aryans developed a rich tradition, composing hymns of the four Vedas. These sacred scriptures included the : Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda.

Two of the greatest epics were also composed during this period. ‘The Ramayana’ and ‘The Mahabharata.’ These tell us a great deal about the culture, society and religion of the people of that era.

It was during the Vedic age that the caste system was born. Due to work specialization, different classes of society developed. Besides the Brahmins, there were the Kshatriyas or warriors, the Vaishyas or merchants and Shudras or outcasts, who performed menial jobs like scavenging, fishing and removing dead bodies.

The status of the Brahmins and Kshatriyas improved greatly and the common people had little or no say in the administration. A lot of importance was placed on pronouncing the Vedic verses correctly, as it was believed, that this led to prosperity and success in war. Kshatriyas became richer and used the services of the Brahmins. The other castes were degraded and reached the lower rungs of society.

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Aurangzeb: The mughal emperor

Aurangzeb, born in 1618, was considered as the last great Mughal emperor. He was the third son of Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal. By the time he turned 16, Shah Jahan gave him the post of the governor of Deccan. Aurangzeb moved to Kirki in the Deccan region, which he renamed, Aurangabad, after him. In 1637, he married Rabia Durrani and it was around this time that Shah Jahan began to favour his eldest son, Dara Shikoh.

Aurangzeb soon earned his father’s disfavour and was asked to step down from his post. However after mending ties with his father, he was made governor of Gujarat where he did well and was rewarded.

By 1647, he was made governor of Balkh and Badakhshan (present day Afghanistan and Tajikistan), replacing his ineffective brother, Murad Baksh.

These areas were constantly attacked by rebels and Aurangzeb managed to quell them with his military skills. When he was appointed as the governor of Multan and Sindh, he engaged in a long battle in an effort to capture Kandahar from the Safavid army. Unfortunately, Aurangzeb failed to do so, and once again earned his father’s anger.

Aurangzeb was once again appointed the governor of Deccan. He set out to expand the Mughal Empire but was stopped by his father and and eldest brother every time.

Soon after Shah Jahan fell ill, all his sons began to fight over the throne. Aurangzeb defeated his elder brother Dara’s armies and took his father as prisoner. Dara was condemned to death by his own brother.

He defeated his other brothers too and soon after took over the throne at Agra. Aurangzeb went on to rule for forty-nine years.

Establishment of Islamic law

Although Aurangzeb’s predecessors were tolerant towards all religions, Aurangzeb enforced strict Islamic law called the Fatwa-e-Alamgiri. He banned music, art and dance in his courts. He also destroyed images in art and architecture, as Muslim Law dictates. He destroyed many Hindu temples, prohibited religious meets and enforced unfair taxes on non-Muslims, which Akbar had removed. He also banned the practice of Sati and forced many to convert to Islam.

Aurangzeb now had the freedom of expanding his kingdom with no one in his way. He extended the Empire both in the Northwest and Northeast. His armies consisted of some 500,000 camp followers, 50,000 camels and 30,000 war elephants. In a quick span of time he invaded Punjab and Afghanistan and also tried to suppress territories owned by the Marathas in the west who were led by Shivaji. But these constant military campaigns drained his treasury. As a result, the peasants of the kingdom had to pay heavy taxes.

Because of his restrictive rule, Aurangzeb had many enemies, especially the Sikhs. When Aurangzeb insisted that all Kashmir Brahmins must convert to Islam, the hapless Kashmiris turned to the Sikh Guru, Tegh Bahadur, for help. Aurangzeb refused to listen to his pleas and insisted that he too must convert to Islam. When Tegh Bahadur refused, Aurangzeb had him executed which triggered a rebellion from the Sikhs.

Aurangzeb’s army continued to weaken. It was at this time that his new enemies, the Marathas attacked him. For 27 years the two armies fought many battles, and only after Shivaji’s death in 1680, did Aurangzeb and his army get some respite.

This relief was short lived as the Rajputs of Jodhpur and Mewar joined forces and rebelled against Aurangzeb. They declared themselves independent of their rule. Aurangzeb, sent his son to quell their rebellions, only to learn later that his son would deceive him. Akbar, Aurangzeb’s son declared himself King and soon fled to the Deccan where he allied with Shivaji’s son, Sambhaji. Aurangzeb later sent his son into exile in Persia, from where he never returned. Aurangzeb then later captured Sambhaji and killed him.

The decline of the Empire however had already begun. Aurangzeb’s political power had weakened because of the time he spent on military matters. His governors and generals became powerful and many declared themselves independent rulers. His harsh rule, alienated the Hindus and the peasants, who lived in utter poverty.

Aurangzeb breathed his last in 1707. The Empire was no longer an effective force though it officially came to an end in 1857 when Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar was put on trial. It was at this time that the Mughal Empire was completely wiped out.

The Sikhs established their empire in Punjab, after Aurangzeb’s death. Charat Singh established his stronghold in Gujranwala in 1763. Maharaja Ranjit Singh was the most powerful of all Sikh rulers and ruled for over forty years. He was also known as the ‘Lion of Punjab’ and died due to paralysis in 1839. After his death the Sikh Empire was divided into small principalities.

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Interesting facts and information about the Early Mughals

India’s reputation of being the only known source of diamond mines in the world and its flourishing international trade attracted many invaders. North Indian kingdoms resisted invasions by Arab-Turks for centuries but soon, small Islamic Empires or Sultanates were established in several parts of the North.

Before these invasions, Muslim trading communities who arrived from Arabia in small numbers via the Indian Ocean, were already trading in coastal South India, especially Kerela.

Arabs, Turks and Afghans invaded parts of North India and established the Delhi sultanate in the former Rajput regions during the twelfth and thirteenth century.

The Delhi Sultans

There was a great impact on culture with the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate. An Indo-Muslim culture evolved and this could be seen in architecture, music, literature and religion. The language of Urdu was developed at this time which is said to be a mix of Sanskrit, Persian, Turkish and Arabic. The Delhi Sultanate was the only Indo-Islamic Empire which placed Razia Sultan, a woman, on the throne.

Qutb-ud-din Aybak was responsible for establishing the Delhi Sultanate. Shams-ud-din Iltumish then later established a Turkish Kingdom in Delhi, which enabled future Sultans to conquer Kingdoms in different directions. The Delhi sultanate, over the next few centuries extended its kingdom right up to Bengal and the Deccan.

Timur, a Turkish-Mongol conqueror, launched a massive campaign to invade India. He attacked Sultan Nasir-ud-din Mehmud of the Tughlaq Dynasty in Delhi, leaving the city in ruins.

This led to the fall of the Delhi Sultanate and the emergence of Mughal rule in India.

Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur

Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur was the founder of the Mughal Empire. He was the descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan. His armies who invaded India under his leadership compromised of Turkish, Persian and Pashtun soldiers. Babur with the help of his armies defeated the last of the Sultans, Ibrahim Shah Lodhi in the First Battle of Panipat in 1526. Even though Babur’s army was smaller in size, his 12,000 men who were well trained succeeded in beating an army of more than a 100,000 men. Babur however, did have the advantage of superior cavalry tactics, firearms and guns.

Babur then went on to crush, Rana Sanga of Chittor and achieved many other military victories. However, just five years into his reign, he passed away. His biggest legacy was that he left a set of descendants who fulfilled his dream of an Islamic Empire in India.

Humayun

Babur was succeeded by his son, Humayun. At the age of 12, his father appointed him as the governor of Badakshan, and this is where he proved his administrative skills and bravery.

However, after ascending the throne, his people realized that he lacked his father’s clever and crafty mind, even though he was a great soldier. He got addicted to the luxuries of the palace and did not take much action against the Rajputs and Afghans who were conspiring against him.

Even his own brothers conspired against him, but he refused to believe it and gave them positions of power. Sher Shah Suri, an Afghan general who served under Babur was one of Humayun’s biggest threats. Humayun thought that Sher Shah Suri had a small army and therefore, he chose to ignore him. But in reality, Sher Shah had gathered an impressive number of Afghan soldiers who were loyal and well trained.

After realising that there was reason for feeling threatened, Humayun marched to Chunar, Sher Shah’s territory, while the latter was away at Gaur. But in spite of the absence of their leader, his men fought fiercely and Humayun was forced to retreat.

Sher Shah in the meantime, went about capturing Bihar and Jaunpur which was under Mughal rule. Facing humiliation, Humayun clashed with Sher Shah two more times. The first battle was at Chausa where he and his men suffered a crushing defeat and Humayun barely escaped with his life. The second battle at Kannauj brought an end to Humayun’s reign. Afghan rule was established with the capture of Delhi and Agra.

Humayun fled to Persia where he lived in exile for 15 years after being betrayed by his brothers. In exile, his wife gave birth to their son, Akbar.

After the death of Sher Shah Suri, his empire began to crumble as his successor could not re-create Sher Shah’s magic.

Humayun on realizing this, put an army together with the help of a Persian King and marched towards Delhi. The following year, he managed to capture Delhi, along with Kabul and Kandahar and defeated Sikander Suri, Sher Shah’s successor, ascending the throne at Agra, thus bringing an end to his days in exile.

His years in exile changed him. After ascending the throne, Humayun devoted his time to the State. His greatest achievements lay in the field of painting. He brought several painters from Persia and they laid the foundation for Mughal art and style. From here on, there was a fusion of Persian and Indian styles.

Humayun’s reign was short-lived. He died in a tragic accident after falling off his library steps. He was succeeded by his son Akbar, who went on to become on of the greatest Mughal kings ever known.

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Indian Rebellion of 1857

During the British Raj, there was unrest and discontent amongst the people of India. Soon, many rebellions followed in various parts of the country. There were several causes which led to this. One of them being that the Hindu soldiers protested against the addition of Gurkha, Sikh and lower caste soldiers to their ranks. Economic policies of the British had an adverse effect on the soldiers’ families back home.

The use of animal grease on the cartridges of the newly introduced Enfield rifles was the last straw. While loading the rifles, soldiers had to bite off the end of the cartridges. It was made up of either pig or cow fat, which violated the religious sentiments of the Muslim and Hindu soldiers.

In 1857, three regiments of the army refused to use the ammunition for the Enfield rifles. These men were disbanded. Then later another 85 soldiers disobeyed orders to load their rifles. They were arrested. The rest of the soldiers mutinied on May 19, 1857. These men marched on to Delhi and demanded that the last Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, take over as the ruler of India and the head of the rebels. Though he reluctantly agreed, the British defeated him and sent him into exile in Burma, where he died in 1862.

This uprising came to be known as the Sepoy Mutiny or the Revolt of of 1857. Mangal Pandey is the most famous figure of this uprising who attacked the British regiment. He was later arrested and hanged.

Soon after, another regiment revolted. Ninety thousand men from the Bengal Army joined the mutiny. Initially the British suffered heavy casualties as they were unable to respond to the uprising. After suffering major losses in Kanpur and Lucknow, the British sought the help of the loyal Sikh and Gurkha forces. The British with their help managed to ward off the army of rebels near Delhi.

In response to the mutiny, the British Parliament passed an act, abolishing the East India Company. India became a crown colony to be governed by the British Parliament directly. A British cabinet member, the Secretary of State for India, and the Governor General looked after Indian affairs.

In the following year, the title of Viceroy was bestowed upon the Governor-General of India by Queen Victoria. She introduced a policy of ‘Divide and Rule’ which prevented Indians from uniting to rebel against her. By implementing this, the British sought accommodations with Princes and landlords, in turn allowing them a degree of freedom. This ensured their loyalty. The army was reorganized to avoid further conspiracies.

The British turned their attention to commerce and development. The first step was the building of a transport system to move imported British ready made goods and to export Indian raw materials. Construction of the railroad and railway stations began and many new towns came into existence just to transport Indian resources to the markets. New roads were built, a new communications system came into existence and a harbour was built in Bombay.

During this period the conditions of the poor worsened. Village artisans went broke as a result of competition from English machine-made goods. Many were forced into poverty with the destruction of the Indian craft industry.

They were forced to turn to tilling land for a living.

During the American Civil War, Indian agriculture shifted from foodstuffs to cotton for supply to the English textile industry. This and a severe drought in the 1870s led to a terrible famine that spread throughout the country of India.

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Chandragupta Maurya: The founder of the Maurya Empire

Right after Alexander’s departure from India, one of India’s greatest rulers, Chandragupta Maurya, founder of the Maurya Dynasty, invaded central and western India. With Pataliputra (near Patna) as it’s capital, he had occupied north western India in its entirety by the year 316 BC.

Chanakya (Kauṭilya)

The great strategist and minister Chanakya (also known as Kautilya) was one of Chandragupta Maurya’s closest advisors. At Chanakya’s behest, Chandragupta took over Magadha from the Nanda dynasty.

With the aid of an intelligence network filled with young recruits from Magadha and other provinces, Chandragupta kept a close eye on the happenings within his kingdom and elsewhere. These recruits were the ones who were upset with the corrupt rule of King Dhana of Magadha. Chandragupta gathered enough of such recruits and resources needed for his army to fight long battles. The men included the former General of Taxila and accomplished students of Chanakya.

Eventually, with an elaborate plan and perseverance, Chandragupta took over the throne of Magadha. His empire went on to become one of the most widespread across India known for its great political and military rule. The empire stretched north, all the way up to the Himalayas and eastward till modern day Assam. To the west the kingdom reached present day Pakistan and parts of Afghanistan.

During this time, Chanakya went on to write the Arthashastra, one of the greatest collections of observations and manuals on economics, politics, foreign affairs, administration, warfare, military arts and religion known to man.

Under Chandragupta’s rule a single currency was established all across India. Through regional governors and administrators he governed deep into his kingdom. Justice and security of his subjects was paramount and he established strong practices to ensure that law and order was maintained. Trade and agriculture also flourished in his rule along with an efficient system for finance and administration.

The Mauryan army brought peace upon the land by wiping out bandits, gangs, private armies and powerful chiefs who tried to establish their rule. Many public works including road and water ways were built to help with travel and trade.

In 305 BC,the Greek ruler Seleucus I, ruler of the Seleucid Empire, attacked Northern India to reclaim parts of their earlier kingdoms. The campaign failed and eventually the two rulers signed a peace treaty under which the Greek ruler received 500 elephants from Chandragupta. These elephants helped Seleucus I in his conquests abroad. This also opened up a deeper friendship between the Indians and the Greeks. Greek historians and scholars like Megasthenes, Deimakos and Dionysius attended Chandragupta’s court.

In Chandragupta’s reign Jainism gained huge popularity. Jain temples and stupas were built across the length and breadth of his kingdom. As Chandragupta grew old he renounced his throne and all his wealth and joined a group of wandering monks.

Chandragupta was succeeded by his son, Bindusara around 298 BC. After Bindusura, came Ashokavardhan Maurya, better known as Ashoka the Great, one of the greatest emperors that India had ever seen.

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There was a heartfelt beginning to the freedom struggle. Men who are known for their peaceful methods such as Swami Vivekananda, Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, Aurobindo, Rabindranath Tagore and many others started spreading the word to the people that everyone must be passionate about gaining freedom.

When news of World War I broke out, the British declared that Indians would be fighting for them against Germany. A large number of Indian soldiers served abroad. When the war came to an end, the British imposed stricter legislation in India to curb those people they felt were political extremists.

To make up for the expenses incurred during the war, the British imposed higher taxes on Indians and even disrupted trade. Indian soldiers in the meantime smuggled arms into India to overthrow the British.

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi

While all hope was diminishing, emerged a man whom the country began to revere, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. Gandhi became the undisputed leader of the freedom struggle.

Gandhi was a leader in South Africa during the anti-apartheid movement. He advocated the policy of Satyagraha and civil disobedience. Mahatma Gandhi as he was known, inspired millions to follow his path. His vision took the freedom struggle to the national level.

The Rowlatt Act

In 1919 an Act was passed which allowed the government the right to silence the press, arrest political activists or anyone they felt suspicious and keep them in prison without a trial. This Act was called the Rowlatt Act, also notoriously known as the Black Act.

The Jallianwala Bagh tragedy

On April 13, the British led by General Dyer massacred hundreds of unarmed civilians, including women and children, who were attending a meeting. This incident is known as the Jallianwala Bagh tragedy in Amritsar, which triggered off nation-wide hatred for the British rule.

Gandhi launched the Non-Cooperation Movement in response to this tragedy. He called for the boycott of British educational institutions and courts. He urged the people to refuse to pay taxes and forsake British titles or honours. This was a serious problem for the Government.

In 1920, a new, reorganized Congress was formed with freedom as their only goal. It is here where some of our most prominent leaders emerged, Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhash Chandra Bose and Vallabhai Patel to name a few.

Complete Independence

These new leaders called for complete independence from the British and threatened nation-wide civil disobedience. Gandhi embarked on a march of about 400 kilometers from Ahmedabad to Dandi famously known as the ‘Salt Satyagraha’ or the ‘Dandi March’. This was to protest against British taxes on salt, and at Dandi, the law was broken by making their own salt from seawater.

The British responded by making wide-spread arrests and firing on the crowds. Gandhi too, was sent to jail a number of times.

The Government of India Act

The Congress party and the government were at loggerheads for the next few years. In 1935, the British passed the Government of India Act, a last ditch effort to restore British rule in India. The Act called for an election and the Congress emerged as the dominant party. During this time the rift between the Congress and the Muslim League continued to grow.

Muhammad Ali Jinnah

Muhammad Ali Jinnah, President of the Muslim League, insisted that a separate Muslim state be carved out of British India to safeguard the interests of the Muslim community. This state would go on to be called Pakistan.

Bhagat Singh and Chandrasekhar Azad

During this period, armed rebellions against the British continued to grow in several parts of India. Shops were looted, a large number of people were murdered and many revolutionaries were captured and imprisoned. Leaders such as Bhagat Singh and Chandrasekhar Azad led acts of violence against the British. But soon the revolutionary activities died down and many rebel leaders joined political parties.

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This is the story about the Chola Dynasty which is believed to have originated from the fertile valley of the river Kaveri. By the turn of the 8th century, there were three prominent kingdoms of the South, the Cheras, the Pandyas and the Cholas who were considered to be the most powerful of the three.

The History of Chola Empire

The year 985 saw one of the greatest kings of Southern India ascend the throne, Rajaraja Chola I also known as Rajaraja, the Great, who defeated the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, the Pandyas of Madurai and the Gangas of Mysore. His campaign of expansion included the capture of Sri Lanka, which remained under the Chola rule for 75 years. He also conquered the islands of the Maldives and even sent missions to Indonesia.

Being an able administrator and a great lover of architecture, he commissioned the building of the magnificent temple of Tanjore. The temple is named ‘Rajarajeshwar’ after him.

Rajendra Chola, the heir and son of Rajaraja Chola I, took over the kingdom after his father’s death and was an able ruler, just like him. His greatest achievement included the conquest of the Andaman and Nicobar islands.

Rajendra Chola then later attacked the Western Chalukyas and their allies. He conquered lands right upto the banks of the river Ganga. From the holy river, he collected the sacred water in golden pots and poured it into a tank he called Chola Ganga. He then adopted the title of Gangaikonda, which means Victor of the Ganga.

The period under his reign came to be known as the Golden Age of the Cholas. Art, music, dance, poetry, drama, sculpture, painting, philosophy and religion, all reached new heights. Temples were the center of all activities where the courtyard served as a school for students who were taught ancient Vedas and scriptures. It was also built to be used as a shelter by the people in case of an emergency.

This was also a time of religion and the worship of Lord Shiva increased in popularity. The Tamil language received great encouragement and many beautiful works of Tamil literature came about during this period. The famous poet Kamban lived during this period and his work ‘Ramavatharam’ is one of the greatest epics of Tamil literature.

The Cholas continued to lay much emphasis on architecture. Magnificent temples were built, the Brihadiswara temple at Tanjore is a prime example. Another famed art form of the time, were the carved bronze statues. The Natraja and the Ardhanarishwara are famous examples of this art form.

Following Rajendra’s rule, three of his sons and one grandson succeeded him. Thereafter, a new line of Chalukya-Cholas ascended the throne. The Eastern Chalukyas and the Cholas had inter-married through the generations and thus a new clan was born. Rajendra Chola’s daughter was married to the Chalukya Prince, Vimaladitya.

One of the Chalukya-Chola rulers was Rajendra II, an Eastern Chalukyan prince, who called himself ‘Kulottunga’ or ‘Star of the Dynasty.’ Under his rule, Sri Lanka gained independence from the Chola Rule. His reign was of peace and prosperity. Trade with Southeast Asia flourised, with many diplomatic missions sent to China.

Around the year 1118 however, the Chalukya-Chola rulers lost control of Vengi to the Western Chalukya king, Vikramaditya VI. The future Chola kings all faced trouble in one way or the other. They were constantly assaulted. By the thirteenth century, the Pandyan monarchs were gaining strength. The Chola Dynasty shrank to the region around Tanjore and soon came to an end when the last Chola King, Rajaraja III died.

PROJECT

• The earliest of the Cholas date back to which time period?
• Apart from capturing foreign lands such as Sri Lanka, the Maldives and Indonesia, which other countries did the Cholas have a hold on?
• The history of the Cholas falls into four periods. What are those four periods called?

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Chera Dynasty – Kingdoms of South India

The lands south of the Mauryan Empire which included the Malabar coast, Karur, Coimbatore and Salem districts in South India were all part of the Chera Dynasty. The Chera capital was Tiruvanchikulam.

Utiyan Cheralatan was the first Chera king and is accredited with founding the dynasty. One of his battles was against the Cholas where he suffered a humiliating defeat as a result of which he committed suicide.

Utiyan’s son, Imayavaramban Nedun Cheralatan, through his grit and determination was responsible for making the Chera dynasty one of the most powerful kingdoms in the south. His rule lasted 58 years and during this time he won multiple battles and wars, the most famous of which was against his sworn enemies, the Kadambas of Banasvi.

Imayavaramban not only extended his kingdom, he also supported the local arts, culture and literature during his reign.

Yet, the greatest Chera king was to follow – King Kadalpirakottiya Vel Kelu Kuttuvan. The great Tamil epic, Silappadigaram ( which means the jeweled anklet) which tells the story about a mythical hero is supposed to be about him. There were two other epic works during that time which were Manimegalai and Sivagami Sindamani.

Kuttavan established the Patni (wife) cult which says that a wife must be completely devoted to her husband. An example of this is the story of the faithful wife Kannagi, who is remembered even today.

Kuttavan is also said to have achieved the famous victories at Mogur Mannan and Kongar.

The Chera kings used marriage to strengthen their ties with other clans as they were constantly warring with their neighbors and needed to strengthen their positions. With strong overseas links with places like Rome, the kingdom prospered immensely. The trade consisted mainly of spices, ivory and sandalwood. They also exported pearls and gems to the Middle East.

The Kalabhras

This period of success was followed by the Kalabhras overthrowing the Cheras. The Chera dynasty however, overthrew the Kalabhras and the second Chera Empire was founded with Mahodyapuram as their capital.

Mahodayapuram was founded by Kulasekhara Alvar, one of the twelve Alvars or Saints who sang hymns and composed songs in praise of their beloved Lord Vishnu. The Bhakti movement of south India established by the Alvars.

Kulasekhara Alvar authored five dramas ‘Perumal Tirumozhi,’ ‘Mukundamala,’ ‘Tapatisavarna,’ ‘Subhadradhamala’ and ‘Vichchinnabhiseka.’ He was a renowned scholar and lover of art.

Kulasekhara was succeeded by Rajasekhara Varman Rul. He was followed by Sthanu Ravi Varman who was friendly with the Cholas. During his time, trade flourished with China and Kerala amongst other places.

However, with Sthanu’s death, the relationship between the Cheras and Cholas turned sour. The last Chera King was Rama Varma Kulasekhara who shifted his capital to Quilon. After his death, the Chera dynasty disintegrated and the Cholas took over.

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